Wudang martial arts and Daoist culture

During our 18-day stay at the second International Seminar on Daoist Culture in the city of Danjiangkou, Hubei Province, held at the Jingle Palace complex (Jīnglè Gōng 淨樂宮), the two main themes were Wudang zaowan gongke jing 武當早晚功課經 (Wudang Morning and Evening Ritual Chanting), led by master and Daoist priest Wu Junli 武俊丽, and Wudang taijiquan (Wǔdāng Tàijíjüán 武當太極拳), led by master Zhang Weishen 张微神. 

I. The historical origins of Wudang martial arts and their connection with Daoism

Wudang martial arts (Wǔdāng wǔshù 武當武術) are an internal style of Chinese martial arts (nèijiāquán 內家拳) originating in the Wudang Mountains (Wǔdāng Shān 武當山) in Hubei Province and closely connected with Daoism (dàojiào 道教). Unlike external styles (wàijiāquán 外家拳), such as Shaolin (Shàolín 少林), internal martial arts focus on internal energy (qì 氣), slow and circular movements, breathing, and harmony between yin and yang (yīn yáng 陰陽), reflecting the Daoist principle of natural balance.

These arts, including taijiquan (tàijíjüán 太極拳), xingyiquan (xíngyìquán 形意拳), and baguazhang (bāguàzhǎng 八卦掌), developed through tradition as practices for spiritual growth, maintaining health, and self-defence. It is essential that every movement be fully coordinated with the mind (yì 意).

The legend of Zhang Sanfeng

The historical origins of Wudang martial arts (Wǔdāng wǔshù 武當武術)  are closely intertwined with the legends and historical facts of ancient China. Although early forms of martial practice had already existed in the area, Wudang martial arts formally took shape during the Ming 明朝 dynasty (1368–1644), when Daoist monks developed them further and also used them to protect their monasteries. Wudang martial arts have older roots in Daoist practices of physical training, but as a recognisable and systematically developed tradition, Wudang wushu emerged primarily during the period (Yuán mò Míng chū 元末明初) of the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. Martial arts were also associated with practical self-defence, but their role in the Wudang tradition was not limited to combat. They developed in close connection with Daoist internal cultivation, physical training, daoyin, and the idea of harmonising body, breath, and spirit. See China's official website for intangible cultural heritage: https://www.ihchina.cn/art/detail/id/13787.html

One of the most frequently cited accounts attributes the founding of Wudang martial arts to Zhang Sanfeng (Zhāng Sānfēng 張三丰), a Daoist sage about whose life and activities little reliable information is available. According to one version, he lived as a hermit on Mount Wudang, lived for more than 200 years, and attained spiritual immortality (xiān 仙). During the transition between the Yuan and Ming dynasties, he is said to have combined Daoist philosophy with martial arts, thereby creating taijiquan.

While contemplating, he is said to have observed a fight between a crane (symbolising yang) and a snake (symbolising yin). This led him to realise that softness overcomes hardness (róu kè gāng 柔克剛). The snake does not use brute force, but evades attacks and adapts flexibly, thereby overcoming its opponent. On this basis, he is said to have developed slow, flowing movements that redirect force. These arts also draw on Daoist philosophy, in which the main goal is to achieve harmony with nature (zìrán 自然) and cultivate internal energy (qì 氣).

Although Zhang Sanfeng's historical existence is a subject of scholarly debate, he is regarded as the spiritual father and symbolic founder of internal martial arts. 

While Zhang Sanfeng represents the philosophical foundation of Wudang arts, Chen Wangting (Chén Wángtíng 陳王廷, c. 1600–1680), a general from the end of the Ming dynasty, is regarded as the creator of an early, historically documented system of Chinese martial arts from which the Chen style later took shape. A military officer from the late Ming and early Qing periods, he is regarded as a key figure in shaping the early tradition from which Chen-style taijiquan (陳式太極拳) later developed. Both approaches draw on the same fundamental principles (yin-yang and the use of internal energy, qi), but the Chen style developed from military needs and family techniques, whereas the Wudang tradition originates in the spiritual and monastic practices of Daoist monks. Earlier descriptions of martial systems are also known in history. See: https://www.bjcc.gov.cn/article/50184306.html  《吕氏春秋·论威》 Lǚshì Chūnqiū – Lùn Wēi, 3rd century BCE… See also the website of the General Administration of Sport of China: https://www.sport.gov.cn/n322/n3407/n3417/c564916/content.html

The sacred Wudang Mountains and the symbolism of Xuanwu

It was in the Wudang Mountains, which flourished most during the Ming dynasty and became a major spiritual and martial arts centre, that the distinctive Wudang style developed. The ancient architectural complex in the Wudang Mountains, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994, remains a sacred place dedicated to spiritual cultivation (xiūliàn 修煉) and a global centre for learning internal martial arts.

The Ming emperors revered Wudang as the “central imperial Daoist temple”. The principal deity of the mountains was Great Emperor Xuánwǔ (Xuānwǔ Dàdì 玄武大帝), protector of the Wudang Mountains, depicted as a turtle and snake joined together. The turtle is naturally calm, composed, and restrained, symbolising yin, tranquillity, and the element of water. The snake is agile, flexible, and constantly moving, representing yang, the sun, movement, and fire. 

(In this context, the snake represents the active component in the sense of rising energy, although it is itself yin). The intertwined turtle and snake (guī shé hé yī 龜蛇合一) symbolise the meeting and interaction of yin and yang, and the union of water and fire (shǔi huǒ jì jì 水火既濟), a central Daoist symbol. 

II. Daoist principles in martial arts

Daoism associates its origins with Laozi (Lǎozǐ 老子), traditionally regarded as its founder. Among other things, he wrote: 

“Human beings follow the earth, the earth follows heaven, heaven follows the Dao, and the Dao follows what is so of itself.”

(Rén fǎ dì, dì fǎ tiān, tiān fǎ dào, dào fǎ zìrán 人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然)

His thought illustrates one of the fundamental principles of Daoism. “The Dao follows what is so of itself (Dào fǎ zìrán)” is also the highest guiding principle of Wudang martial arts. It means that the Dao operates spontaneously and without artificial constraints. All movements arise from observing and imitating nature. For example, traditional forms in taijiquan include movements such as “white crane spreads its wings” (bái hòuliàng chì 白鶴亮翅) or “golden rooster stands on one leg” (jīn jī dú lì 金雞獨立), or the circular movement of drawing a bow in one of the Eight Brocades exercises (bāduànjǐn 八段錦).

Practitioners are advised to follow a natural rhythm and avoid muscular strain and forced postures. Movements should be natural and flowing, breathing deep, and the mind relaxed. Only in this way can qi and blood (qì xuè 氣血) circulate freely throughout the body.

The principle “my fate is in my own hands, not in the hands of Heaven” (wǒ mìng yóu wǒ bù yóu tiān 我命由我不由天) distinguishes Daoism from many other traditions, including religious ones. Among other things, it means that we must take responsibility for our own health and extend our lifespan through proper practice and a good quality of life. This life-affirming outlook determines the orientation of Wudang internal arts: maintaining health (yǎngsheng 養生) takes precedence over martial arts. Zhang Sanfeng is said to have maintained that the purpose of his sword and fist was not to teach people to fight, but to strengthen health and promote longevity.

Simultaneous cultivation of spirit and body

The ultimate goal of Daoist practice is to attain the Dao and spiritual immortality by following nature and nurturing life. Here, “innate nature” (xìng 性) refers to a person's original nature, spirit, and heart-mind, while “fate / life” (mìng 命) refers to the physical dimension, in which jīng 精 (essence), qì 气 (vital energy), and physical processes play important roles.

Daoism teaches that nature and life are inseparable. True liberation cannot be attained by cultivating only one aspect. Wudang martial arts therefore embody this dual cultivation. Unlike ordinary physical exercise, which focuses solely on building external muscles and physical strength, the emphasis here is on the holistic development of the inner spirit and physical body, and on achieving their unity. 

At the heart of the Daoist understanding of life are the Three Treasures (Sān Bǎo 三寶):

Jing (jīng 精) is essence, the fundamental life energy and genetic material we receive from our parents at birth. It determines growth, development, and ageing. Jing (jīng 精) means essence or essential life substance. In traditional Chinese medicine, innate essence (xiāntiān zhī jīng 先天之精) is associated with the parental inheritance received at conception, as well as with growth, development, reproduction, and the ageing process.

Qi (qì 氣) is vital energy that functions on the basis of jing. It drives all processes in the body and is replenished in this way. Qi (qì 氣) is expressed as  the active force of life, a dynamic process that enables and regulates various bodily functions. In traditional Chinese medicine, it is connected with essence (精 jing), blood (血 xuè), and other bodily processes, forming an interconnected functional whole with them.

Shén (神) is a term with several meanings that may refer to the psyche, consciousness, mental and emotional activities, and a person's expression of life. In a broader classical context, it also denotes what manifests as the liveliness, vitality, and order of a person's psychophysical functioning. In classical Chinese medical terminology, shén is therefore neither simply “spirit” nor merely “consciousness”. Its meaning varies with context and may encompass both internal mental processes and their outward expression.

In some Daoist traditions, the harmonious functioning of the Three Treasures, interconnected through a process of transformation, is believed to contribute to health and longevity, while their depletion is associated with illness and ageing. Ultimately, Wudang martial arts nurture and preserve these three treasures. 

Classifying martial arts: internal and external

In the history of Chinese martial arts, there is a clear distinction between external (wàijiā 外家) and internal (nèijiā 內家) arts. This classification was formalised in the 17th century by Huang Zongxi (Huáng Zōngxī 黃宗羲, 1610–1695), one of China's most prominent thinkers and historians during the transition from the Ming to the Qing dynasty.

In his work Wang Zhengnan mu zhi ming 王征南墓志铭 (Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan), in the section on martial arts, he emphasised: 

“Shaolin is renowned throughout the world for its martial skill, but its method centres on direct confrontation with an opponent, which also allows the opponent to exploit it. There is a so-called internal school that uses stillness to control movement; whoever attacks it is immediately knocked down as the hand responds. Shaolin is therefore distinguished as the external school.”

In this way, Huang Zongxi helped distinguish between external schools (Shaolin) and internal schools originating in the tradition of Zhang Sanfeng. The latter operate according to Daoist concepts: the use of internal energy, qi , and a Daoist approach that takes into account the principles of yin and yang, action through unforced non-action (wúwéi  無為), and natural spontaneity (zìrán 自然).

He connected internal arts with Daoist philosophy, which emphasises the unity of the external and internal, external and internal energy, relaxation and focus—extending, of course, beyond purely physical combat. External, or hard, martial arts involve active attacks and explosive power, focusing on training the muscles, tendons, and bones. Internal martial arts focus on coordinating the body, breath, qi, and yi, or mental intention, while attention may deepen into the direct experience of the heart-mind (xin), which is deeply rooted in Daoism.

At advanced stages, however, the two paths converge. At the highest level, both follow the same principle of yin and yang: Yang and soft Yin are inseparable. Without softness, hardness becomes brittle; without hardness, softness becomes weak. The ultimate goal of both approaches is the same: releasing force (fā jìn 發勁). In internal martial arts, force is generated not merely through muscular effort, but through the coordinated action of the whole body. In taijiquan, this is also expressed through fā jìn—the release and direction of internal force at the moment of contact. Although practice is often characterised by slow, soft, flowing movements, this does not imply an absence of power. On the contrary: at the moment of application, this apparent softness can turn into a rapid, explosive burst. A strike may look like a “soft touch”, yet behind it lies an effective force arising from the connected and relaxed movement of the whole body.

II. Key principles of Wudang taiji

1.  The philosophical foundations of wuji and taiji

The term tàijí 太極 appears in the Yijing (易經), specifically in the Xici zhuan (繫辭傳), one of the later commentaries on the Book of Changes. These commentaries were traditionally attributed to Confucius, but modern research places their composition in a later period, roughly before or around the 3rd century BCE. It is therefore more appropriate to present the connection with Confucius as a traditional attribution rather than a historical fact. The Xici zhuan contains the famous formulation: “In the Changes there is tàijí; from it arise the two opposites”—Yì yǒu tàijí, shì shēng liǎngyí (易有太極，是生兩儀). This connects tàijí with the primordial unity from which the complementary principles of yīn and yáng develop. The text describes natural laws and the transformations of the universe and human life. In Daoist philosophy, the world is often understood as a process of emergence and continual transition between seemingly opposing aspects. Before any differentiation, there is a primordial undifferentiated condition that can be associated with the concept of wújí 無極—“boundless” or “without delineation”. From the undifferentiated emerges tàijí 太極, from which the complementary aspects of yīn and yáng develop. This is not an emergence from “nothing”, but a transition from an undifferentiated condition to differentiation, and then to the continual transformation of opposites. In internal martial arts, an important place is held by the state of wújí (無極), which denotes the undifferentiated starting point from which the movement of tàijí (太極) develops. Wújí and tàijí thus do not denote two separate or opposing states, but different aspects of the same process: from an undifferentiated condition, a dynamic yīn–yáng relationship emerges. Internal power (jìn 勁) is not established simply through hardness or tension, but through the coordinated and dynamic action of the whole body. Without the state of wuji , true internal power (jin) cannot be generated. Wújí denotes undifferentiated boundlessness, while tàijí is the dynamic principle from which yīn and yáng develop. It is the axis of movement.  The eleventh chapter of Zhōuyì · Xìcí shàng zhuàn 周易·繫辭上傳》states: Shì gù Yì yǒu Tàijí, shì shēng liǎng yí, liǎng yí shēng sì xiàng, sì xiàng shēng bā guà 是故易有太极，是生两仪，两仪生四象，四象生八卦。Thus, Yi has the great ultimate pole (taiji); from it arise the two forms (liangyi); from the two forms arise the four images (sixiang); from the four images arise the eight trigrams (bagua). Wuji is a state of complete emptiness and potential. In martial arts, it is the foundation from which every technique is born. Without an understanding of wuji, taiji is merely a sequence of movements; with wuji, it becomes a profound practice connecting body, mind, spirit, and the natural laws of the universe.

2. Overcoming hardness with softness

Lao Zi wrote in the Daode jing: “The softest thing in the world overcomes the hardest thing in the world. The softest thing in the world can penetrate the hardest thing. Water can penetrate stone.” 

According to Wang Bie's 王弼 (226–249) version of the Daode jing, Laozi is said to have written: “The softest under heaven can penetrate the hardest under heaven.” (A version of chapter 43 of the Daode jing.) In He Shang Gong's 河上公 (2nd century BCE) version, the saying is defined even more precisely: “That which is supremely soft is water. That which is supremely hard is metal and stone. Water can pass through hardness and enter rigidity; there is nothing it cannot penetrate.”

Taiji applies these principles in martial arts. The first step for those who practise taiji is complete relaxation, softening and releasing the whole body, from the muscles to the connective tissues and ligaments. When the body reaches a state of complete relaxation, stable and elastic power (nèijìn 內勁) will arise naturally. Softness is stronger than hardness, but to attain it, we must first relax the whole body. When the body is relaxed, it is supple. Only then can firmness and internal power develop.   

Neijin requires a state of complete yet active relaxation (sōng 鬆 ). The muscles are relaxed, allowing force to pass freely through the bones and ligaments. When the body is relaxed, it can become connected as a whole (zhěng 整). A relaxed and connected body is like a spring: it gathers energy and then releases it through the body with direction (yì 意) outwards towards the target (fā jìn 發勁). All movements in taijiquan are flowing. Such flowing, circular movements prevent joint injuries and redirect the opponent's power and force. In the context of Chinese martial arts, particularly taijiquan, the term four liang (sì liǎng 四兩) appears in a well-known saying: “Four liang move a thousand jin.” (Liang is an ancient Chinese unit of weight. 1 jin equals 16 liang. 1 liang is 37.5 g. Four liang are therefore 150 g: the weight of a small apple or a slice of bread moves 1,000 jin—600 kg, the weight of a large rock.)

This is a metaphor for the principle of using a small force to redirect a large one. When facing an opponent, practitioners do not attack; instead, they listen to the opponent (tīng jìn 聽勁), follow their movement, and redirect their energy elsewhere. Ting 聽 means to listen, and jin 勁 means force. This means physically and mentally “hearing” the opponent's intentions, direction, power, and speed through touch (for example, when the hands make contact) or simply through their movement. Without ting jin, it is impossible to apply the principle “four liang move a thousand jin”. 

Long-term taijiquan practice sharpens bodily perception of the opponent's force: whether it is hard or soft, where it is moving, where the opponent's balance lies, and whether their force is empty (lost) or full (strong). Although we seem to act later, we reach the target first; we strike later and arrive first—this is the essence. To achieve this, we must be calm. This does not mean standing motionless, but cultivating calmness in our thoughts so that the body remains relaxed. If our mind and heart are not calm, and the body is not relaxed, we cannot sense the opponent's force. If we cannot sense the opponent's force, we cannot act later yet achieve an effect sooner. Stillness in taijiquan is a state of heightened alertness and immediate responsiveness.

When someone pushes us, we do not resist; instead, we redirect their force so that the opponent loses their centre of gravity, then seize the moment to counterstrike. This is not about overcoming force with physical force, which would require enormous strength, but about redirecting, evading, and using the opponent's energy. It sounds contradictory: how can we be first if the opponent has already moved? The key lies in perceiving, or being sensitive to, the opponent's force—in ting jin. 

3. Slowing movement through calmness

Movement in Wudang taijiquan is often restrained and slow. It should proceed at an even speed, without sudden acceleration or deceleration. Slow movements allow practitioners to control their bodies and sense subtle changes. There are no breaks in the movement. As soon as one movement ends, the next begins. Like flowing water or drifting clouds, everything proceeds smoothly and continuously, allowing blood and qi to circulate freely throughout the body.

4. Using the heart-mind (心 xīn) rather than brute physical force (lì 力)

Distinguishing between emptiness and fullness is a fundamental principle and basic requirement of Wudang taijiquan practice. Emptiness means that the body's weight does not bear down on a leg, while fullness means that the weight rests entirely on it. During practice, the centre of gravity constantly shifts from one leg to the other, creating a state in which emptiness contains fullness and fullness conceals emptiness.

Using internal energy (neijin 内劲) rather than physical force is a fundamental principle of taijiquan. People usually rely on muscular strength, which is brute force. Taijiquan takes a different approach, requiring practitioners to perform movements with awareness rather than by tensing their muscles. For example, if you want to raise your arm, simply direct your thought towards the target and your arm will perform the movement spontaneously and naturally. It sounds mysterious, yet it is just like walking. You do not deliberately contract your thigh muscles; you move naturally. Taijiquan extends this intense yet effortless movement to the whole body. In taijiquan, movement is relaxed but conscious. The body is relaxed, yet intention matters—the gentle, quiet attention with which we act. (Yi dao, qi dao – Where intention goes, qi goes. Yi bu dao, qi bu dao“ – Where intention is absent, or excessive, qi does not arrive.

“Use the heart-mind to guide qi so that it descends, gathers, and penetrates to the bones. Use qi to set the body in motion; let it remain soft so that it can follow the heart-mind,” says Zhang Sanfeng.

Guide qi with a calm mind so that it sinks deep into the body, to the bones. Set the body in motion in a smooth flow, allowing movements to follow the mind freely. Consciously guide qi, which moves the body and allows unhindered movement.

Internal alchemy (Nèidān 內丹) views the human body as a microcosm. By nurturing jing (essence), qi, and shen (spirit), we can attain a state of unity with the Dao. By cultivating jing into qi, qi into shen, and shen into emptiness, wu, we can attain the Dao. Taijiquan allows the techniques of internal alchemy (neidan) to be transformed from meditation in a static posture into dynamic practice—from a static to a dynamic state. 

By harmonising the internal transformation of the mind with dynamic practice, we attain the highest level of Wudang taijiquan. This requires complete coordination of breathing, movement, and awareness. Movement is the outward expression, breathing is the internal power, and the heart-mind is the guide. Only by uniting both principles, internal and external, can we fully harness the power of taijiquan. Only through harmony between the internal and external can we attain the true power of taijiquan.

4. The value of taijiquan for maintaining health 

The words attributed to Zhang Sanfeng, that taijiquan supports longevity and vitality, are not an empty phrase. Taiji should be practised with a tranquil heart-mind: “When the heart-mind is tranquil, the breath regulates itself; when tranquillity is established, the heart-mind also becomes settled.”

The movements are slow and soft, coordinated with the breath, massaging the internal organs, stimulating circulation, and regulating the nervous system. The practice requires calmness, concentration, and relaxation, which contribute to improved well-being, reduced stress, better sleep, and emotional stability. Many chronic conditions, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and arthritis, can improve significantly through long-term practice. 

This is why taijiquan is also called “healing boxing”. Wudang taijiquan requires practitioners to remain attentive and focused during practice and to exclude all distractions. Long-term practice develops concentration and patience, and alleviates anxiety, depression, and negative thoughts, bringing the heart-mind into a calm state.

Uroš Hrastnik, member of SDT